1st Century BC100 170th Olympiad 99 Second Servile War ends in Sicily as the Romans under consul Manlius Aquillius finally crush the rebel slaves. Aquillius receives an ovation for his victory, a full triumph not being considered appropriate since the enemy were only rebel slaves. Just as the date of this war’s start differs among sources, so is its end disputed. Some report it as 99 BC, while others say 100 BC or 103 BC. 96 171st Olympiad 95 Roman entrepreneur C. Sergius Orata develops the oyster growing industry and invents the world’s first central heating system in Campania. Beds of cultured oysters are established along the Campanian coast at Lake Lucrinus near Baiae and Neapolis. According to Pliny the Elder, one local oysterman named C. Sergius Orata makes a fortune selling oysters to wealthy Romans and Greeks. Orata’s methods consisted of preparing the grounds by removing other forms of marine life, planting seed oysters, cultivating the oysters by keeping them separated in order to grow to a well-formed, mature size, and finally harvesting them when they were ready for market. Orata designed a Hypocaust central heating system to heat his oyster tanks. This centered on a furnace, whose fires were constantly fueled by charcoal, wood or perhaps coal. A pump forced the hot air through channels beneath the floor of the room. Such a system could heat rooms to about 21°C (about 70° F). A relatively simple, but expensive and fire-prone, system, it could only heat rooms on the ground floor and required a separate furnace for each set of rooms. 94 Great meteor is seen in the territory of the Vestini in central Italy. 93 Aulus Licinius Archias, Greek poet from Antioch, becomes a citizen of Heraclea in Lucania. 92 172nd Olympiad Eruptions on Ischia. 91 The Roman Tribune of the Plebs, M. Livius Drusus, attempts to pass legislation extending full Roman citizenship to all Italy. This sparks violent opposition from the conservatives culminating in the brutal murder of Drusus. – The assassination of Drusus enrages the Italians in the city of Asculum. An anti-Roman revolt breaks out as the citizens massacre all of the Roman citizens they can find. The revolt soon spreads to other allied Italian peoples (known collectively as socii), touching off the Social War. – The Italian rebels establish their own republic, Italia, and establish their capital at Corfinium, renamed Italica. Among the towns which join the rebellion are Stabiae, Surrentum, Herculaneum, and Pompeii. Eruption on Ischia. Eruption on Vulcano island. Possible earthquake at Rhegium. 90 Consul L. Julius Caesar enacts the lex Julia de civitate Latinus et sociis danda, a law granting full Roman citizenship to those Italian allies who did not join the revolt. It is a measure which succeeds in preventing any further defections to the rebel side. As a result of the Lex Julia, Neapolis (Naples) receives the status of a municipium. Aesernia (mod. Isernia) surrenders to the rebel Samnite general Vettius Cato after a long siege. Romans defeat Italians under Papius near Acerrae. The Roman Legate Gn. Pompeius Strabo lays siege to the city of Asculum (mod. Ascoli Piceno). (c) Diodorus Siculus, historian, born. A native of Agyrium, in Sicily, he composed a history of the world (Bibliotheca historica) from its mythological creation to 60/59BC. Of the 40 original books only 1-5 (mythological history preceding the Trojan War) and 11-20 (dealing with Greek, Sicilian and Roman history from 480 to 302 B.C.) have survived intact. Only fragments of the remaining books survive. How much of the work was original and how much consist of quotes of earlier sources has long been debated. Regardless of this, however, his history represents an important primary source of information for the periods and subjects it covers. Diodorus died in 30 BC. Elea (Velia) is raised to the status of a municipium. 89 Romans under Sulla besiege and capture Pompeii. (late Spring/early Spring) Battle of Fucine Lake. Romans under consul Lucius Porcius Cato unsuccessfully attack a camp of the rebel Marsi. Cato is killed in the fighting. Herculaneum is captured by Titus Didius, a legate of Sulla. The town soon becomes a Roman municipium. The “Nuceria League” (Nuceria, Surrentum, Pompeii, and Herculaneum) is broken up. The towns are united to Rome under separate treaties and the territory of destroyed Stabiae is given to Nuceria (Ager Nucerinus). These towns are the only ones in Campania to be enrolled in the Menenia voting tribe. Alba Fucens remains loyal to Rome and comes under siege from Italian rebels. The attackers retreat when a Roman relief force arrives. Battle of Nola. Romans defeat an Italian army. Asculum falls to the Romans under Gn. Pompeius Strabo. Romans under Gn. Pompeius Strabo capture the Italian capital of Italica (Corfinium). Rebels move their capital to Bovianum Vetus. Lex Plautia Papiria de Civitate Sociis Danda expands the eligibility of the lex Julia de civitate Latinus et sociis danda (90 BC). Among those who received Roman citizenship through the Lex Plautia Papiria de Civitate Sociis Danda is the Greek poet Aulus Licinius Archias, who had become a citizen of Lucanian Heraclea in 93 BC. In 62 BC, he was accused of falsely claiming Roman citizenship, and was successfully defended by Cicero. Venusia (mod. Venosa [PZ]) is raised to the status of a municipium. 88 173rd Olympiad Romans under Q. Caecilius Metellus Pius defeat an Italian army under Q. Pompaedius Silo. Silo is killed soon afterwards. Canusium receives the status of a municipium. L. Cornelius Sulla becomes the first Roman general to march his army on Rome itself. 87 Social War ends. Rebels destroy the pro-Roman town of Abella. It is later rebuilt and becomes a Roman colony. Marius and Cinna capture Rome and begin a reign of terror, executing many of their political enemies (to 86 BC). 86 (c) Sallust (G. Sallustius Crispus), historian, born in the Samnite city of Amiternum (AQ). (Jan 13) Marius dies. 84 174th Olympiad Aesernia is retaken by the Romans. The city is punished with such hard restrictions that much of the population abandon their homes. 83 Sulla returns from the east and lands with his army at Brundisium (mod. Brindisi). A bloody Roman civil war begins between Sulla and the party of his late rival, Marius. Among those who rally to Sulla are the future triumvirs Pompey (Gn. Pompeius Magnus) and M. Licinius Crassus. A short-lived colony is founded near Capua. 82 Marian supporter Gn. Papirius Carbo flees to Sicily but is captured the Sullan general Gn. Pompeius Magnus. Taken to Lilybaeum (mod. Marsala), he is executed. Sulla’s troops capture Neapolis (Naples) through treachery and massacre a large part of the population. Within a generation the city has recovered from this tragedy. Sulla defeats the Marians and their Samnite allies at the battle of the Colline Gate. Declaring himself dictator, Sulla proceeds to punish the surviving Samnites and other Italic peoples. As a result, the Italic cultures of central and southern Italy are suppressed and their people are absorbed into the Roman State. 80 175th Olympiad Nola, in Campania, surrenders to Sulla and is razed. The city is soon rebuilt. (alt date: 79) Romans capture Pompeii after the fall of Nola. They establish a Roman colony (Colonia Cornelia Veneria Pompeianorum) there. Between 2,000 and 5,000 veteran soldiers settle here. (alt. date: 87 BC). 76 176th Olympiad 75 Cicero discovers the over-grown tomb of Archimedes at Syracuse. Cicero has the tomb cleaned up and restored. Still carved into the monument was a cylinder circumscribing a sphere with the ratio of 3/2, a decoration added in accordance with Archimedes’ wishes. 73 Third Servile War begins in southern Italy. Spartacus, a former Roman auxiliary soldier from Thrace who was condemned to be trained as a gladiator at Capua, leads a revolt of his fellow slaves. They break out the gladiator school and make their way to Mt. Vesuvius. Thousands of other slaves, as well as many free, but disenfranchised Italians, join the rebel army. Nola, in Campania, is attacked and pillaged by Spartacus. Verres becomes the praetor of Sicily. During his governorship he loots the cities of the island of an immense amount of treasure and artworks. Verres used harsh measures to keep the slave population repressed to prevent any uprising inspired by Spartacus who was then ravaging the Italian mainland. 72 177th Olympiad 71 Third Servile War ends. Spartacus is defeated by M. Licinius Crassus. Mopping up operations are carried out by Pompey. It is unclear whether Spartacus was killed in battle or died with the remaining 6,000 rebel slaves who were crucified along the Appian Way. 70 During these years, the province of Sicily produces over 500 million lb. of wheat per year. Under Augustus (29 BC-AD 14), Sicily will sends 80,000,000 lb. of cereals to Rome each year. (c) Marcus Tullius Cicero prosecutes the governor G. Verres on behalf of his Sicilian clients, for extortion and governmental incompetence from his governorship of the island province of Sicily. Found guilty by a jury, Verres and is sent into exile. He publishes the trial, called In Verrum. Little, if any, of the loot stolen by Verres is returned to Sicily. Construction begins on the amphitheater at Pompeii. 68 178th Olympiad 65 (Dec 8) Quintus Horatius Flaccus (aka Horace), poet, is born in Sulmona or Venusia. 64 179th Olympiad 63 Servilius Rullus attempts to found a colony near Capua. Cicero, in his oration De Lege Agraria, opposes this settlement and it fails. (Sept 9) Gaius Octavius Thurinus, the future Octavian and Augustus, is born in Rome. 62 (Jan 5) The attempted overthrow of the Roman government by Lucius Sergius Catiline and his conspirators fails. Catiline is killed in battle in Etruria, while 5 others conspirators are executed. Instrumental in exposing and crushing the conspiracy were Cato and Cicero who are viewed as the champions of the Republic. 61 Possible eruption of Mt. Etna. 60 180th Olympiad 59 Julius Caesar establishes colonies for his veterans in Campania. A colony for VIII Gallica Legion was founded at Casilinum and one for VII Paterna Legion at Calatia, near Capua. One of these colonies, Julia Felix, is settled with 20,000 veterans. Its population would later be augmented with new colonists by Marc Antony and by Nero. 56 Possible eruption of Mt. Etna. (Apr) Earthquake at Potentia (mod. Potenza) in Lucania. 181st Olympiad Lamachus of Tauromenium, victor in the stadion at the Olympian Games. 52 182nd Olympiad 50 Eruption on Stromboli. 49 (Jan 10) Julius Caesar crosses the small river Rubicon, the boundary between the Italy and Cisalpine Gaul. By leading his troops under arms into Italy, Caesar commits an act of high treason and rebellion. (Feb) Pompey and most of the Roman Senate abandons Rome and flees to Epirus in the Balkans. (Mar 28) Caesar visits Cicero at Formiae. (June 7) Cicero leaves Italy bound for Thessalonika. (Oct) Caesar is declares dictator for life at Rome. Julius Caesar issues a pardon to the former combatants of the Social War. This act allows the rise of the old local families in towns like Pompeii. Mt. Etna erupts. Caesar besieges Brundisium. 48 183rd Olympiad. (Aug 9) Battle of Pharsalus. Caesar, with an army of about 22,000, defeats Pompey, whose forces were about 60,000 in number. (Sept 29) Pompey the Great is assassinated when he arrives in Egypt on his 56th birthday. His murder is witnessed by his wife and children. 47 Julius Caesar assembles his fleet at Lilybaeum in preparation for his campaign in North Africa. 46 (Feb 5) Suicide of Marcus Porcius Cato at Utica. 45 (Mar 17) Battle of Munda. In Spain, Caesar defeats the last of the Roman Optimate armies bringing the Civil War to an end. The Optimate commanders, Titus Labienus and killed in the battle, while the two sons of Pompey the Great, Gnaeus Pompeius (Pompey the Younger) and Sextus Pompey manage to escape. Gnaeus is soon captured and executed on April 12. Sextus successfully escapes and makes his way to Sicily. 44 184th Olympiad Possible eruption of Mt. Etna. Julius Caesar grants Latinitas (Latin Rites) to all free-born Sicilians. Soon after Caesar’s assassination, Marc Antony converts this to full Roman citizenship, claiming that this had been Caesar’s intention. (Mar. 15) Assassination of Julius Caesar. The Roman Republic is now plunged into a new civil war erupts between the Republican forces commanded by the assassins of Caesar and those of the First Triumvirate: Marc Antony, Octavian, and Marcus Lepidus. (Apr 18) Octavian, the nephew and adopted heir of Caesar arrives at Naples. (Apr 19) Octavian meets with Cicero and Balbus at Naples. He then goes to Puteoli and then to Cicero’s villa at Cumae in Campania. In a letter written a few days later, Cicero described Octavian as “very noble and friendly.” (May 8) Octavian assumes the name of Gaius Julius Caesar as the posthumously adopted son and heir of his great uncle the dictator Julius Caesar. Marc Antony renews the colony at Casilinum. Octavian appeals for help to Caesar’s veterans who had been earlier settled in Campania. They declare their loyalty to him as Caesar heir and quickly reassemble their two legions VII Paterna and VIII Gallica. The revival of these legions, numbering about 10,000 men, so close to Rome was viewed with alarm by the Roman Senate. They were to form the core of Octavian’s army in his initial struggle with Marc Antony. (Nov 27) Official formation of the Second Triumvirate of Octavian, Marcus Antonius, and Marcus Lepidus. Among those killed is Cicero who dies at is villa at Formiae (mod. Formia). 43 Taking advantage of the disruptions following the death of Julius Caesar, Sextus Pompey, son of Pompey the Great, seizes control of Sicily. Henna, in Sicily, receives the status of a municipium. (Dec 7) Cicero is killed near Formiae (mod. Formia) by the tribunes Herennius and Popilius by order of Marc Antony. 41 Farmland in Campania is confiscated by the Roman government for distribution to retiring legionaries. 40 185th Olympiad Treaty of Brundisium. Octavian, Marcus Antonius, and Lepidus meet in the southern Italian port-city and divide the empire among them. The Republic/Empire is split with Antonius controlling the eastern provinces and Octavian most of the West. Lepidus, a reluctant and obviously junior partner, received only Africa. 39 Pact of Misenum. Members of the Second Triumvirate meet with Sextus Pompey in the Campanian port-city. The triumvirs recognize Sextus Pompey, son of the late Pompey the Great, as ruler of Sicily, Sardinia, Corsica and the Peloponnese. Pompey had threatened to use his fleet to cut off grain supplies to Rome if his demands were not met. About 5 years earlier, in 44 BC, it was estimated that about 150,000 people in Rome received free grain. 38 Treaty of Tarentum. Marcus Antonius, Octavian, and Lepidus meet in the southern Italian city and agree to a 5-year extension of the Second Triumvirate. Triumvirs go to war with Sextus Pompey. Octavian marries his third wife Livia Drusilla. 37 Agrippa begins to train a new fleet for Octavian near Naples. Sextus Pompey defeats Octavian in a naval battle off Messana (mod. Messina). 36 186th Olympiad (July 15) Mt. Etna erupts. (Aug) Sextus Pompey defeats Octavian in a sea battle. (Sept) Sextus Pompey is decisively defeated off the cape of Naulochus by Octavian’s legate, Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa. His fleet destroyed, Sextus flees from Sicily for the east. Lepidus attempts to seize control of Sicily in the wake of Sextus Pompey’s defeat, but is thwarted and ousted from the Second Triumvirate. Octavian takes control of Sicily and incorporates the forces of Lepidus and Sextus Pompey into his own. Lepidus is allowed to become Pontifex Maximus in Rome, a lifetime religious position. Prior to being selected as a triumvir, this had been the post which Lepidus had originally wanted. 35 Sextus Pompey is captured at Miletus and summarily executed on Antony’s orders. This act would later be used by Octavian in his condemnation of Antony because although Sextus Pompey had been a rebel, he was also a Roman citizen and had not received a trial as was his right. 34 Sallust, Roman historian from Samnium (Abruzzo), dies. 32 187th Olympiad Second Treaty of Tarentum. Octavian and Marcus Antonius meet at the southern Italian port-city and renew the Treaty of Brundisium (from 40 BC). (c) Mt. Etna erupts. 31 (Sept 2) Battle of Actium. The fleet of Octavian, commanded by Agrippa, decisively defeats that of Antony and Cleopatra. This victory breaks the power of the latter pair, leaving Octavian the sole ruler of the Roman world. Antony and Cleopatra flee to Egypt where they both commit suicide in 30 BC. Agrippa creates a major military port at Misenum on the Campanian coast. 30 (c) The city of Morgantina in Sicily is abandoned. The reasons for the abandonment of the city are uncertain. Archaeological evidence shows that Morgantina had enjoyed a high level of prosperity up to its end. Suicides of Antony (July 30 or Aug 1) and Cleopatra (Aug 30 or Nov 30) in Alexandria, Egypt. Diodorus Siculus, historian from Sicily, dies. 28 188th Olympiad Roman census taken. 27 (Jan 16) Octavian is awarded the title of Augustus by the Senate. This event is considered to mark the foundation of the Roman Empire. Marcus Terentius Varro, Roman scholar, dies. He was a native of the city of Reate (mod. Rieti), and thus probably of Sabine-Sabellian roots. Marcus Agrippa has a tunnel through the promontory of Posilipo, the headland which separates the Bay of Naples from the Bay of Baiae. Often called the grotto of Posilipo, this remarkable piece of Roman engineering runs 2,244 feet in length, 21 feet in breath, and rises to a height up to 70 feet in some places. 24 189th Olympiad Eruption on Vulcano Island. 22 Mausoleum of Lucius Munatius Plancus is erected at Caita (mod. Gaeta). Plancus was a Roman senator (c87 BC-c15 BC), consul in 42 BC, and censor in 22 BC. Although several tombs from ancient times have survived, this large cylindrical mausoleum is one of the few which belonged to a known historical figure. During the 19th century it was converted into a shrine for the Virgin Mary. 21 Augustus visits Sicily. 20 190th Olympiad 19 (Sept 21) The great Roman poet Vergil (or Virgil) (P. Vergilius Maro), author of the Aeneid, dies of illness as Brundisium (mod. Brindisi). His body is taken to Naples and interred in a tomb near that city. (c) Marcus Velleius Paterculus, Roman historian, is born. A member of a noble Campanian family, much of his life was spent in the Roman army, traveling throughout the Balkans, the East, Pannonia and Germany. Entering politics, he served as Quaestor in AD 8 and praetor in AD 15. It appears that he was part of the conspiracy of Sejanus against the emperor Tiberius for which he was executed in AD 31. Paterculus wrote a Compendium of Roman History in 2 books spanning from the period from the fall of Troy to the death of Livia in AD 29. 17 Horace composes the ode Carmen Saeculare. 16 191st Olympiad 12 192nd Olympiad Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa dies. 10 Eruption on Vulcano island. Possible eruption of Mt. Etna. 9 The island of Capri off the coast of Campania is made the personal property of the Roman Imperial family. Augustus establishes the world’s first paleontological museum in his villa on Capri. According to Suetonius, the villa housed “a collection of huge limb bones of immense monsters of land and sea popularly known as giants’ bones, along with the weapons of ancient heroes.” 8 193rd Olympiad Death of Horace. The sixth month in the Roman calendar, Sextilis, is renamed to honor Augustus. Roman census taken. 7 (c) Augustus reorganizes the political structure of Italy, dividing it into 11 administrative regions. The southern part of the peninsula consisted of Regio I: Latium et Campania; Regio II: Apulia et Calabria; Regio III: Lucania et Bruttii; and Regio IV: Samnium. 6 Eruption on Ischia. 4 194th Olympiad 2 Earthquake at Neapolis (Naples). Julia, daughter of Augustus, is declared guilty of adultery and is exiled to the tiny volcanic island of Pandateria (modern Ventotene), off the coast of Campania.