279 Battle of Asculum (Apulia). Pyrrhus defeats a Roman army commanded by G. Fabricius Luscinus, but suffers heavy casualties. Many sources consider this a drawn battle rather than an actual victory for Pyrrhus. Pyrrhus receives a request from the Greek Sicilian cities of Syracuse, Leontini, and Akragas, to lead them in a war against the Carthaginians and the Mamertines. (alt. date. 278 BC). Romans and Carthaginians sign a defensive treaty against Pyrrhus. 278 Pyrrhus places a garrison at Taras under the command of his son Alexander, and goes to Sicily. Arriving at Tauromenion (mod. Taormina) and makes an alliance with the local tyrant Tydarion. His next landing is at Catana, where he is receives in friendship. Pyrrhus assumes the title of King of Sicily. He plans to place his son, Alexander, on the throne of a united Greek Sicily. Alexander, through his mother, is a descendant of Agathocles. Pyrrhus also makes plans for his two other sons. Helenus was to be his successor on the throne of Epirus, while Ptolemy, who did not accompany him on the campaign, would become the king of a new kingdom encompassing southern and central Italy. Treaty between Rome and Heraclea. (alt date 282 BC). 277 (c) Rhegium under Epiriote control (to 270 BC). Pyrrhus marches through Greek Sicily taking control of Syracuse and Leontini. As he advances towards Akragas, he learns that the population there expelled the Carthaginian garrison from the city. He enters Akragas unopposed and establishes his own Epiriote garrison there. Pyrrhus takes Henna. Continuing his march, Pyrrhus takes the cities of Selinus, Herakleia and Segesta. Consolidating his Epiriot troops with those of the cities he has occupied, Pyrrhus now crosses into Carthaginian territory with a large army. Eryx, Panormus and Herkte all fall and Lilybaeum, the last Carthaginian stronghold, is besieged. Croton submits to Rome. Romans occupy Bruttium.
276 126th Olympiad Pyrrhus abandons his Sicilian expedition and returns to Taras, renewing his war with Rome. 275 Hieron II seizes power in Syracuse. (c) Barium, in Apulia, taken by the Romans. Battle of Beneventum/ Maleventum. Romans under Man. Curius Dentatus defeat Pyrrhus. Pyrrhic War comes to an end. Pyrrhus withdraws from Italy. Pyrrhus leaves a garrison at Taras and returns with his army to Epirus. Of his original army, only about 8,500 remain. End of the Pyrrhic War. Pyrrhus continued his attempts to gain power through interference in the affairs of other Greek states. In 272 BC, he intervened in a war in the Argolis and was fatally struck in the head by a roof tile during street fighting in Argos. The withdrawal of Pyrrhus leaves Rome in effective control over Magna Graecia. The withdrawal of the Epiriote garrison, Rhegium is left defenseless and is seized by a group of Campanian mercenaries who had deserted from the Roman army. 273 Romans establish a Latin colony at Poseidonia. Most sources state that it was at this time that the city’s name was changed to Paestum. There is numismatic evidence, however, that indicates that the change may have occurred prior to this. Coins from the city excavated from late 4th century BC graves give the name of Paistano instead of Poseidonia. 272 127th Olympiad The Anio Vetus, Rome’s second aqueduct, is built. Renewal of the Roman-Tarentine Conflict. Romans make new alliances with Velia, Heraclea, Thurii and Metapontum, removing them from Tarentine influence. Romans attack and capture Taras/Tarentum. They defeat the Epiriote garrison left there by Pyrrhus and raze the city walls. This removes their last major Greek opponent in Magna Graecia. According to some sources this is the actual end of the “Pyrrhic War.” A Roman colony is established near the city. Romans complete their subjugation of the Italic Samnites, Lucanians and Bruttians. Nearly the entire Magna Graecia portion of southern Italian mainland is now under Roman control. Livius Andronicus, the Taras-born poet, is brought to Rome as a prisoner. Pestilence strikes Rome. 270 Hieron II becomes king of Syracuse. (c) Hieron II begins to build an army which he intends to use against the Mamertines. (c) Theocritus arrives at the court of Hieron II at Syracuse. Romans go to war against the Umbrians, Picentes, and Sallentini. Romans capture Rhegium from rebellious Mamertine mercenaries. (alt. date: 271 BC). Treaty of alliance between Rome and Caulonia in Bruttium. Poet Gn. Naevius is born in Capua. Archimedes of Syracuse studies at Alexandria. 269 The Picentes revolt against Rome. Altar of Hieron II built at Syracuse. Dedicated to Zeus Eleutherios (the Liberator), it was c196 m. in length and 11 m high. According to the ancient historian Diodorus Siculus, 450 oxen could be sacrificed on the altar at the same time. (c) Hieron II of Syracuse defeats the Mamertines at the battle of the river Longanus. 268 128th Olympiad Sabines receive full Roman citizenship. Romans under Consul Sempronius crush the Picentes revolt. They grant a treaty of alliance to Asculum Picenum and grant “Latin Rights” to the remainder of the tribe. A portion of the tribe is transported to new lands in Campania. This group, known as the Picentini, settles at Picentia (mod. Pontecagnano), to the east of Salernum (mod. Salerno). They are remembered in the place names for the river Picentino and the Monti Picentici. Romans establish a Latin colony at Maleventum. Because the name resembles the Latin word male (=bad), the Romans changed the name to Beneventum, based on the Latin word bene (= good). 267 Romans capture Brentesion in Apulia. Renaming the city Brundisium (mod. Brindisi), they improve the city and its harbor, turning it into their principal port for traffic and trade to the eastern Mediterranean. (alt. dates 245 or 244 BC). 266 Alliances are made between Rome and the last independent peoples in Apulia and Messapia. This marks the completion of the Roman conquest of the entire southern Italian mainland. 265 Hieron II of Syracuse lays siege to the Mamertines in Messane. The Mamertines send an appeal for help to Carthage which responds by sending a fleet to Messane. The Carthaginians occupy the city and force Hieron II to conclude a new treaty and withdraw his troops. The Mamertines quickly come to resent the imposition of Carthaginian control of their city and send an appeal for help to Rome to oust the Carthaginians. Archimedes of Syracuse develops the Archimedean Screw, a mechanical devise for lifting liquids to higher levels, and the law of specific gravity. 264 129th Olympiad First Punic War (called the Sicilian War by the Romans) breaks out between Rome and Carthage for control of Sicily. Using the appeal for help sent by the Mamertines, the Roman Consul Appius Claudius Caudex cross the Strait of Messina with 2 legions and occupies Messane. Expelling the Carthaginian garrison there they replace it with one of their own. This incursion out of their sphere of control, alarms Hieron II who quickly accepts an alliance with Carthage against Rome. The First Punic War, one of the bloodiest conflicts of ancient history, has begun. Romans establish a Latin colony at Aesernia (mod. Isernia). (alt. date: 263 BC). The ager Romanus, the territory directly under Roman authority, measures 23,226 km˛. 263 The Romans dispatch both consuls with their armies (totaling about 40,000 men) to Sicily. Man. Valerius Messalla begins a siege of Syracuse. Realizing that the security of his kingdom is now in jeopardy, Hieron II quickly cancels his alliance with Carthage in favor of one with Rome. Hieron proves himself to be a trusted ally to Rome throughout the remainder of the war. Romans receive a sundial from Catane (mod. Catania) in Sicily. It is often referred to as the first sundial at Rome, but such a device had been erected in the court of the Temple of Quirnus in the year 293 BC. The Sicilian sundial was set up in the Forum and became a popular stopping point for Romans wishing to check the time. Unfortunately, having been created for use at Catane (which lies at latitude 37°30′ N) it was gave the incorrect time at Rome (latitude 41°54′ N) until being remounted a century later. Romans conquer Adranon (mod. Adrano [CT]). The town is given the status of a civitas stipendiaria (a town subject to a heavy tribute to Rome). Much of the population is sold into slavery by the Romans to the inhabitants of nearby Centuripe. Control of Netum (mod. Noto Antica) is given to Hieron II by the Romans as part of their treaty. Morgantina comes under Roman control. 262 Akragas, allied with the Carthaginians and second in power in Sicily only to Syracuse, becomes a prime target for the Romans. It comes under siege by both Roman consular armies. The Carthaginians send Hannibal to organize the defense of the city. 261 (Jan) Hannibal, the Carthaginian general commanding the defenses at Akragas, abandons the city with his troops under cover of night. Now defenseless, Akragas falls to the Romans the next day. The Greek population is sold into slavery. The Romans continue their land offensive in Sicily, defeating the Carthaginian commander Hanno in some minor engagements. While failing to achieve much against the Romans on land, the Carthaginians still prove themselves to be masters of the sea, conducting raids along the coast of the Italian mainland. This threat prompts the Romans to begin building up their own naval force. Using the ship-building skills of their Greek allies in southern Italy, the Romans soon have a fleet of 160 ships. 260 130th Olympiad Segesta surrenders to the Romans. The Romans grant it many benefits and award Segesta the status of civitas libera et immunis (“free and immune city”). The Romans believe that the Elymians, like themselves, were descendants of the Trojans. The theater of war becomes more focused on the sea. The Roman consul Cn. Cornelius Scipio attempts to capture the Lipari Islands, which the Carthaginians had been using as a base to raid Roman and Italian territory. Due to faulty intelligence, Scipio is ambushed in a sea battle and captured. He is released after a short time. Because of his foolhardiness, he is given the nickname Asinus. Despite his later successes, the unfortunate name stuck with him. Battle of Mylae. A Roman fleet of 140 ships under the commander of C. Duillius gain their first naval victory over 130 Carthaginian ships commanded by Hannibal Gisco at the battle of Mylae off the N coast of Sicily. This victory breaks the myth of Carthaginian naval invincibility. Gisco returns to Carthage where he is executed for his defeat. Elymian port of Drépanon (mod. Trapani) seized by the Carthaginians who develop it into a naval base. 259 First Punic War continues. A Roman force commanded by the Roman consul L. Cornelius Scipio broadens the theater of war by attacking the Carthaginian-held islands of Sardinia and Corsica. While he succeeds to capture the latter island, his attack on the former is unsuccessful. The other consular army, under the command of C. Aquillius Florus, continues the offensive in Sicily where the Carthaginians make some minor gains. 258 Romans capture Kamarina. The Roman army in Sicily, commanded by A. Atilius Caiatinus, continues the offensive against the Carthaginians and their allies. They capture the city of Henna (mod. Enna) in the interior of the island. Meanwhile, the other Roman consul, C. Sulpicius Paterculus, continues the attacks against Sardinia, defeating a Carthaginian squadron off Sulcis. 257 The Roman Consul C. Atilius Regulus defeats the Carthaginians off Tyndaris. He raids Carthaginian-held Malta where he sinks 18 enemy ships. The other consul, Cn. Cornelius Blasio, continues the campaign in Sicily. 256 131st Olympiad. The Roman fleet is victorious over the Carthaginians off the southern Sicilian coast near Economus. In an effort to force the Carthaginians to withdraw troops from Sicily, the Romans plan an invasion of their enemy’s North African homeland. A huge Roman fleet of 330 ships (250 warships and 80 transports), carrying over 140,000 men, commanded by L. Manlius Vulso and M. Atilius Regulus, sets sail and begins to cross from Sicily to North Africa. While still off the Sicilian coast near Economus, the Romans are intercepted by a Carthaginian fleet of 350 ships, carrying over 150,000 men under the command of Hanno. Despite Carthaginian superiority in numbers and naval skill, they are defeated in the greatest naval battle in ancient history. The Carthaginians losses total 30 ships sunk and 50 others captured. The Romans have 24 of their ships sunk and none captured. With their way cleared, the Roman fleet continues on its way to Africa. The Roman invasion force makes a successful landing in North Africa, but no sooner do they arrive than Manlius Vulso and his 2 legions are recalled. He returns to Sicily with the bulk of the fleet leaving the 2-legion army under the command of M. Atilius Regulus in Africa to keep up the pressure against Carthage. Regulus achieves more victories over the Carthaginians, defeating them at Adys and capturing the city of Tunis. The Carthaginians, recognizing their dilemma, attempt to negotiate a peace with Regulus. Intent on crushing and humiliating Carthage, Regulus offers extremely harsh surrender terms, which the Carthaginians refuse. Thus the war continues. 255 Akragas is sacked by the Carthaginians. It remains under Carthaginian control until 210 BC. The fortunes of Regulus and the Roman army in North Africa change dramatically when they suffer a major defeat near Tunis at the hands of a Carthaginian army commanded by Spartan general Xanthippus. Regulus finds himself a prisoner while the survivors of his army retreat back to the coast, sending word of their dilemma to Rome. A legend developed around the ultimate fate of Regulus. It was said that the Carthaginians arranged for him to return to Rome on the condition that he negotiate a peace for them. Should he fail to fulfill this promise, he would agree to return to Carthage to face whatever fate they desired. According to the story, when Regulus returned to Rome, he appeared before the Senate and, contrary to his agreement, extolled the Romans to continue the war rather than make peace. He then willingly returned to Carthage where he was tortured to death. The story, although appearing in many history books as fact, in reality is a fable, created later to vilify the Carthaginians. In reality, nothing is known of Regulus after his capture by the Carthaginians and it is more likely that he died soon after that event while still a prisoner. The remainder of the Roman North African expedition is ultimately rescued by a 250 ship Roman fleet dispatched from Sicily. The Carthaginians attacked this fleet with 200 ships off Cape Hermaea but are once again defeated. As the Romans sail back to Sicily, however, they are caught in a sudden storm off Camerina and all but 80 ships are sunk before reaching safety. Romans capture the island of Pantelleria from the Carthaginians. 254 The Romans capture Drepanon (mod. Trapani), which they rename Drepanum. Hasdrubal arrives in Sicily to take command of the Carthaginian forces there. The Romans rebuild their fleet back up to a strength of 220 ships. Gnaeus Cornelius Scipio arrives in Sicily with an army of 4 legions. The Romans capture Panormus (mod. Palermo). Romans capture Kephaloidion (mod. Cefalů [PA]) on the N. coast of Sicily. They rename the city Coephaledium. Carthaginians retake Pantelleria. An underwater volcanic eruption occurs SW of Sicily. 253 A Roman consular army, under the command of Cn. Servilius Caepio, continues to campaign in Sicily. The other Roman consul, C. Sempronius Blaesus, conducts an unsuccessful raid on North Africa. His fleet narrowly escapes disaster on the Syrtis. Sailing back to Sicily, it is caught in a storm off Cape Palinurus and half of the ships are lost. 252 132nd Olympiad Romans capture Lipara from the Carthaginians (or 251 BC). Romans capture Thermae. 251 Carthaginians send fresh reinforcements to Sicily. (c) Romans under consul Lucius Caecilius Metellus found Metheola (mod. Matera) in Lucania. 250 The Carthaginians under Hasdrubal attempt to retake Panormus but are defeated by the consul L. Manlius Vulso. Carthaginian losses are heavy and include all of their elephants. The Romans continue their own offensive and bring Lilybaeum, the principal Carthaginian stronghold on Sicily, under siege. The Carthaginian garrison manages to hold out thanks to supplies being brought by Rhodian blockade runners. Eruption on Ischia. Timaeus, Sicilian historian from Tauromenium, dies at Syracuse. 249 A Roman fleet under consul P. Claudius Pulcher is defeated at Drepana (mod. Trapani). Losing 93 ships, Pulcher is recalled to Rome and fined for his incompetence. The other Roman consul, L. Junius Pullus, attempts to engage his fleet of 120 warships and 800 transports against a Punic force of 100 ships under the command of Carthalo off Camerina. Carthalo, realizing that a storm is approaching, maneuvered the Roman fleet between his ships and the shore. The Roman fleet is caught in the tempest and broken up against the coastline, while the Carthaginians escape. Junius survives the storm and reorganizes his troops to march inland. 248 133rd Olympiad The Romans continue to besiege the Carthaginian strongholds at Lilybaeum and Drepana. 247 Romans under L. Caecilius Metellus continue to besiege Lilybaeum. Romans under M. Fabius Buteo to besiege Drepana. They capture the island of Pelias. Hamilcar Barca is appointed general and arrives in Sicily where he establishes his base on Mt. Heirkte (or 248 BC). He conducts raids on Bruttium (or 246 BC). Birth of Hannibal Barca, the eldest son of Hamilcar Barca. 246 Romans continue their sieges Lilybaeum and Drepana. Minor skirmishing takes place around Monte Heirkte. 245 The war situation in Sicily remains essentially unchanged from the year before. 244 134th Olympiad. There is little change in the war in Sicily. The sieges of Lilybaeum and Drepana continue while minor skirmishing still centers on Monte Heirkte. A Latin colony is established at Brundisium. The Via Appia (Appian Way) is extended from Capua to Beneventum (mod. Benevento). 243 First Punic War continues. The sieges of Lilybaeum and Drepana continue. Hasbrubal withdraws from Monte Heirkte and takes up a new position on Monte Eryx. From here he is better able to engage the Romans who have been besieging Lilybaeum and Drepana. (alt date 244 BC). 242 Romans capture Lilybaeum. Consul C. Lutatius Catulus brings a new Roman fleet to Sicily. He is wounded at Drepana. 241 First Punic War ends. With their treasury nearly exhausted, the Romans build a new fleet using money loaned by private citizens. The 200 ships are put under the command of C. Lutatius Catulus and set out for Sicily. On March 10, Catulus engages the Carthaginians under Hanno in a sea battle near the Aegates Islands. The Romans achieve a decisive victory, 50 Carthaginian ships and capturing 70 more. The loss of this fleet seals the fate of Lilybaeum and what was left of Carthaginian hopes in Sicily. The Carthaginians sued for peace. Peace Treaty between Rome and Carthage. Sicily becomes the first Roman province, to be ruled by a praetor. The Carthaginians are required to renounce all territorial claims to the island and promise to respect the sovereignty of Hieron’s kingdom of Syracuse. All prisoners of war are returned and Carthage must pay an immediate indemnity of 1000 talents and an annual tribute of 220 talents for the next 10 years. Latin colony established at Spoletium (mod. Spoleto). The defeat of Carthage has left it in a weakened and vulnerable state. The loss of Sicily and the indemnity they must pay to the Romans leaves the city severely short of funds. As a result, many of Carthage’s foreign mercenaries have not received their wages for some time. Growing angry they attempt to force Carthage to pay them by marching against the city of Tunis. The attack, however, is ill-led and uncoordinated and the Carthaginians ultimately put down the revolt. Carthage remains weak for several more years and is unable to prevent the Romans from seizing control of Sardinia in 238/7 BC. The island is soon developed as Rome’s second province after Sicily. Carthage now begins a new period of colonization and conquest in Iberia (Spain) which will eventually restore its wealth and power but, ultimately, lead to a new confrontation with Rome. 240 135th Olympiad Livius Andronicus of Tarentum produces his first play in Rome. This marks the beginning of Roman dramatic theater. The Romans pass the Lex Hieronica, a taxation law which lists 34 Sicilian tributary cities. 239 Quintus Ennius, a poet often called the “father of Roman poetry,” is born at Rudiae in Apulia. He was of Oscan ancestry, and was uncle of the poet Marcus Pacuvius. 238 With the help of Carthaginian mutineers, the Romans seize control of the islands of Sardinia and Corsica. They create their second province outside of Italy. 236 136th Olympiad 232 137th Olympiad 228 138th Olympiad 227 Number of annually elected Roman praetors is raised to four in order to provide governors for Sicily and Sardinia. 224 139th Olympiad 220 140th Olympiad (c) The Roman poet and painter Marcus Pacuvius is born at Brundisium. Like his uncle and teacher, Ennius, he was of Oscan ancestry. As a poet he wrote about 12 plays dealing with Greek subjects, and as an artist, he decorated the temple of Hercules on the Forum Boarium in Rome. 218 Second Punic War begins. Hannibal Barca, commander of Carthage’s forces in Spain, begins a march north into southern Gaul (May) and then across the Alps into northern Italy (November), thus beginning the Second Punic War. He defeats one Roman army under the command of Cornelius Scipio at Ticinus and another under Sempronius Longus at Trebia. The Carthaginians are not so fortunate in other areas however. The Punic commander Hanno suffers defeat in Spain, while a Carthaginian fleet is defeated west of Sicily. Carthaginian-held Malta is lost to the Romans. Hannibal captures Barium in Apulia and places a garrison there. Romans launch a successful invasion of Carthaginian-held Malta from Sicily. 217 Hannibal’s victories continue in northern Italy when he defeats Flaminius at Lake Trasimene. Romans under Fabius Cunctator take Casilinum in Campania. Romans capture the island of Pantelleria from the Carthaginians for a second time. Eruption of Vesuvius (to 216 BC). 216 141st Olympiad Hannibal marches into southern Italy intent on turning Rome’s Italian and Greek allies over to his side. (Aug 2) Battle of Cannae. Hannibal defeats the Romans. Romans suffer their greatest military defeat at the hands of Hannibal. Hannibal’s army, numbering about 40,000, defeats a Roman force of about 70,000, under the command of consuls Lucius Aemilius Paullus and Gaius Terentius Varro. The Carthaginians and their allies envelope the Roman army and slaughter 50,000, while taking another 10,000 prisoner. First battle of Nola. Romans under Marcus Claudius Marcellus prevent Hannibal from capturing city. Hannibal is only partially successful in turning Cannae into a diplomatic as well as a military victory. Some, but by no means all, of Rome’s allies join the Carthaginian camp. The most significant defector is Capua who sees an alliance with Hannibal as an opportunity to regain the lands, wealth and prestige it had lost to Rome. Hannibal chose Capua for his winter headquarters. He later regretted the decision, claiming that his troops became weak through the luxuries offered by the city. Another city to quickly declare its support for Hannibal after the battle of Cannae was Metapontum. The Romans quickly garrisoned the city to prevent its revolt. Hannibal sacks Nuceria Alfaterna (mod Nocera Inferiore). The town is not rebuilt until the time of Augustus. Hannibal destroys Cisturninum (mod. Cisternino [BR]) in Apulia. Argos Hippion (mod. Arpi [FG]) surrenders to Hannibal after the battle of Cannae. He establishes his winter camp there (to 215 BC). Hannibal captured and burns Acerrae. Croton revolts against Rome after the battle of Cannae. Potentia (mod. Potenza [PZ]) rebels against the Romans after the battle of Cannae. Gelon II dies. 215 Hannibal captures Casilinum after a siege through the winter of 216-215 BC. Second battle of Nola. Romans under Marcus Claudius Marcellus prevent Hannibal from capturing city for a second time. Hannibal withdraws back into Apulia. Romans under Consul Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus defeats Hanno, Hannibal’s lieutenant, at the River Calor (mod. Calore or Calore Irpino) near Beneventum. Hanno’s force consisted of 17,000 Bruttian and Lucanian infantry and 1,200 cavalry. Gracchus’s force was made up mostly of volunteer slaves who had been hastily organized to deal with the threat from Hanno. As incentive, these slaves were promised their freedom if victory was achieved. The slave army fought so ferociously that Hanno was barely able to escape with only 2,000 of his soldiers. Each of the Gracchus’s soldiers presented their general with the head of an enemy as proof that he had fought and was thus granted his freedom. Hieron II dies. He is succeeded as king of Syracuse by his grandson Hieronymus. As one of his first acts, Hieronymus breaks the long-standing treaty with Rome and makes an alliance with Carthage against Rome. The Romans react quickly, marching against Syracuse and putting the city under siege. (Dec 15) Hieronymus is assassinated at Leontini. A Carthaginian-supported revolt in Sardinia threatens Rome’s food supply. Troops are quickly dispatched to suppress the rebels. Eruption on Vulcano Island. 214 Morgantina switches its allegiance from Rome to Carthage. Romans retake Casilinum. They use the city as their base of operations against Capua. Third battle of Nola. Romans under Marcus Claudius Marcellus prevent Hannibal from capturing city for the third and final time. Romans under Fabius Maximus besiege and capture Aecae (mod. Troia). Henna (mod. Enna) devastated by the Romans. During the Roman operations against Syracuse, it was learned that Henna was on the verge of rebelling. The Romans attacked the city and trapped much of the population in the theater. In the ensuing massacre most of the city’s leaders and upper classes are killed. All rights and privileges for the surviving population are revoked (alt. date: 213 BC). Megara Hyblaea in Sicily is taken by the Romans under Marcellus. Leontini is captured by the Romans who sack and annex the city. After failing to take the city by direct assault, the Romans under Marcus Claudius Marcellus begin a siege of Syracuse which will last until 212 BC. 213 Romans under Fabius Maximus retake Argos Hippion (mod. Arpi [FG]). Its territory is reduced and it loses control of the port of Sipontum. Romans attack Syracuse but are unable to take the city by direct assault. They begin a siege that will last for the next two years. 212 142nd Olympiad Metapontum expels its Roman garrison and again declares its support for Hannibal. Hannibal establishes a garrison there. Hannibal occupies Tarentum. The Roman garrison manages to maintain control of the citadel. Hannibal captures Heraclea. Romans take Tauromenium. Syracuse finally falls to the Romans under Marcellus. As the city is stormed, Archimedes is confronted by a Roman soldier who, for reasons unclear, slays him. Marcellus is outraged at the act, having specified that Archimedes was to be kept safe. Romans lay siege to Capua. The sudden arrival of Hannibal forced the Romans to withdraw after a short battle. Hannibal remained only a brief time before departing to the south. Once the Carthaginians were gone the Romans returned and renewed their siege. 211 Hannibal returns to attempt to break the Roman siege of Capua for a second time. Unlike the previous year, he encountered heavy resistance from the Romans. Unable to break the siege works, Hannibal then attempted to lure the Romans away marching on Rome itself. Knowing that this was a feint and that Hannibal was in no position to take their city, the Romans remained at Capua. Hannibal abandoned Capua to its fate and withdrew south into Bruttium. Soon afterward, Capua fell. Many Capuans are killed or enslaved while the remainder while the remainder lose their civic rights. The leading citizens of the city were scourged and beheaded, while others committed suicide through poison at a banquet served just prior to the surrender. Capua loses the right to choose their own magistrates and its territory is declared ager publicus (State property.) Morgantina is captured by the Romans, completing their conquest of Sicily. Morgantina is given to Roman auxiliaries from Spain. 210 Carthaginians retake Capua. Romans retake Akragas on Sicily with the help of traitorous Carthaginian mercenaries within the city. Romans rename the city Agrigentum. Romans establish Sicily as their first overseas province. Lucius Cincius Alimentus, praetor, is assigned the province of Sicily. Among the troops under his command are the disgraced Roman survivors of Cannae. (c) Romans begin to establish large wheat-growing latifundae (estates) in Sicily. Eruption on Stromboli. 209 Romans under Fabius retake Tarentum. Romans under Marcellus defeat the Carthaginians under Hannibal in a 2-day battle at Canusium (mod. Canosa) in Apulia. 208 143rd Olympiad Hannibal captures Lucius Cincius Alimentus. He treats his Roman prisoner as an honored guest. Alimentus is later released and becomes a notable scholar, writing a Greek history of Rome, and works on law and grammar. M. Claudius Marcellus is killed in an ambush in southern Italy. 207 Battle of the Metaurus River. A Carthaginian relief force under the command of Hasdrubal, Hannibal’s brother, enters northern Italy. They are defeated by a Roman army commanded by G. Claudius Nero and M. Livius Salinator. Hasdrubal is killed in the fighting. Hannibal withdraws his garrison from Metapontum and retreats into Bruttium. Knowing what fate awaited the population of the city at the hands of the Romans, he decides to evacuate the Metapontines with his soldiers. Metapontum comes under Roman control but is reduced to a minor town. The town survived but never regained its importance or prosperity. By the time of Strabo, in the 2nd century AD, Metapontum was deserted and in ruins. 205 Romans retake Croton (alt. date: 204 BC). Titus Quinctius Flamininus is appointed Propraetor in Tarentum. Some of Capua’s former territory is sold off to private buyers despite its status as ager publicus (State property). 204 144th Olympiad An attempt to reinforcement Hannibal in Italy is unsuccessful when the Carthaginian relief force under Mago is defeated in northern Italy. Hannibal destroys the city of Thurii. Unable to be reinforced and with few allies remaining in Italy, Hannibal is now trapped in the southern part of Bruttium. The Romans continue to apply increasing pressure and capture Romans capture Cosentia (mod. Cosenza), the Bruttian capital. Roman army under P. Cornelius Scipio invades North Africa. Scipio achieves a major victory over the Carthaginians and their Numidian allies in a battle in the Bagradas valley. 203 Hannibal destroys Caulonia. 202 Romans retake Barium (alt. date: 203 BC). Severely threatened by the Romans under Scipio and the Numidian under King Masinissa, the Carthaginians order Hannibal to return from Italy to take charge of their defenses. Accompanying him were what remains of his remaining allied troops, mostly Bruttians, who left Italy with great reluctance. Scipio Africanus assembles a fleet at Lilybaeum in preparation for his invasion of North Africa. (Oct 19) Battle of Zama. Carthaginian army (about 40,000 strong) under Hannibal is defeated by a Roman army of about the same size commanded by Scipio. The Carthaginians suffer such severe losses that they are forced to sue for peace. Scipio receives the name Africanus in honor of his victory. End of the Second Punic War.